Assessing Groundwater Quality in Islamabad: A Microbiological and Physicochemical Analysis in Compliance with WHO Standards for Potable Water
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.53560/PPASB(62-3)1103Keywords:
Groundwater, WHO Standards, Water Quality Monitoring, Coliforms, Physicochemical Parameters, Microbiological ContaminationAbstract
The study was conducted in Islamabad, Pakistan, aimed to evaluate the microbiological and physicochemical quality of potable water from various sites. Sampling was conducted in spring 2023 across 20 sites in Islamabad, selection was based on population density and proximity to potential contamination sources (urban runoff, agriculture. Microbiological parameters (total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and E. coli using the Most Probable Number (MPN) method and physicochemical parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved salts (TDS), turbidity, hardness, chloride, and nitrate were measured using standard procedures. The findings highlighted significant disparities in E. coli contamination across different sites, with the highest count at Site H (21.8) and the absence of E. coli at multiple sites (A, E, G, K, and N), indicating a need for site-specific microbial monitoring. Physicochemical analysis revealed variability in water quality, with pH levels ranging from slightly acidic to slightly alkaline. Notably, turbidity levels were highest at Sites D1 measuring a 93.5 Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU), while Site F exhibited the highest EC (4020 µS) and TDS (3015 mg/L). High EC, turbidity and TDS at these specific sites were attributed to geological mineral dissolution, agricultural runoff, and inadequate sewage management. Site H recorded the highest nitrate concentration at 20 mg/L, suggesting contamination from agricultural runoffs or sewage. The study underscores the importance of continuous monitoring and tailored interventions to ensure safe drinking water standards across different locations and mitigate public health risks associated with contaminated groundwater.
References
1. P. Misra and V.M. Paunikar. Healthy Drinking Water as a Necessity in Developing Countries Like India: A Narrative review. Cureus 15(10): e47247 (2023).
2. G.L. Stephens, J.M. Slingo, E. Rignot, J.T. Reager, M.Z. Hakuba, P.J. Durack, J. Worden, and R. Rocca. Earth's water reservoirs in a changing climate. Proceedings of the Royal Society A 476(2236): 20190458 (2020).
3. J. Ahmed, L.P. Wong, Y.P. Chua, N. Channa, R.B. Mahar, A. Yasmin, J.A. VanDerslice, and J.V. Garn. Quantitative microbial risk assessment of drinking water quality to predict the risk of waterborne diseases in primary-school children. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17(8): 2774 (2020).
4. A. Hannan, S. Shan, and U.Arshad. Bacteriological analysis of drinking water from 100 families of Lahore by membrane filtration technique and chromagar. Biomedica 26: 152-156 (2010).
5. A. du Plessis. Persistent degradation: Global water quality challenges and required actions. One Earth 5(2): 129-131 (2022).
6. G.Z. Hassan, F.R. Hassan, and S. Akhtar. Environmental issues and concerns of groundwater in Lahore. Proceedings of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences: B. Life and Environmental Sciences 53(3): 163-178 (2016).
7. A. Khan and F.R. Qureshi. Groundwater quality assessment through water quality index (WQI) in New Karachi Town, Karachi, Pakistan. Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution 15(1): 41-46 (2018).
8. A. Munir, O.U. Rehaman, K.M. Malik, M.A. Qazi, F. Amin, A. Waheed, B. Ahmad, and M.W. Arslan. Assortment of various groundwater sources through hydrochemical investigation in Rawalpindi district. Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences 56(1): 1-10 (2023).
9. F.U. Haq, U. Naeem, H.F. Gabriel, N.M. Khan, I. Ahmad, H. Ur Rehman, and M.A. Zafar. Impact of urbanization on groundwater levels in Rawalpindi City, Pakistan. Pure and Applied Geophysics 178: 491-500 (2021).
10. F.U. Shinwari, M.A. Khan, S.M. Siyar, U. Liaquat, G. Kontakiotis, M. Zhran, M. Shahab, and F. Alshehri. Evaluating the contamination susceptibility of groundwater resources through anthropogenic activities in Islamabad, Pakistan: a GIS-based DRASTIC approach. Applied Water Science 15: 81 (2025).
11. B.M. Saalidong, S.A. Aram, S. Otu, and P.O. Lartey. Examining the dynamics of the relationship between water pH and other water quality parameters in ground and surface water systems. PLoS One 17(1): e0262117 (2022).
12. World Health Organization. Guidelines for drinking-water quality: small water supplies. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (2024). https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/375822/9789240088740-eng.pdf?sequence=1
13. N. Morin-Crini, E. Lichtfouse, G. Liu, V. Balaram, A.R. Ribeiro, Z. Lu, F. Stock, E. Carmona, M.R. Teixeira, L.A. Picos-Corrales, J.C. Moreno-Piraján, and et al. Worldwide cases of water pollution by emerging contaminants: a review. Environmental Chemistry Letters 20(4): 2311-2338 (2022).
14. X. Shi, D. Mao, K. Song, H. Xiang, S. Li, and Z. Wang. Effects of landscape changes on water quality: A global meta‑analysis. Water Research 260: 121946 (2024).
15. M. Wang, B.L. Bodirsky, R. Rijneveld, F. Beier, M.P. Bak, B. Droppers, A. Popp, T.H. Van Vliet, M. Batool, and M. Strokal. A triple increase in global river basins with water scarcity due to future pollution. Nature Communications 15(1): 880 (2024).
16. V. Jobbágy, H. Stroh, G. Marissens, and M. Hult. Comprehensive study on the technical aspects of sampling, transporting and measuring radon-in-water. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 197: 30-38 (2019).
17. A.F. Wendel and F. Mattner. Contamination of the water system with Pseudomonas aeruginosa after implementation of antiseptic bathing with a leave-on product. Journal of Hospital Infection 104(1): 81-82 (2020).
18. S. Some, R. Mondal, D. Mitra, D. Jain, D. Verma, and S. Das. Microbial pollution of water with special reference to coliform bacteria and their nexus with environment. Energy Nexus 1: 100008 (2021).
19. A. Moretti, H.L. Ivan, and J. Skvaril. A review of the state-of-the-art wastewater quality characterization and measurement technologies. Is the shift to real-time monitoring nowadays feasible? Journal of Water Process Engineering 60: 105061 (2024).
20. H.S. Çadraku. Groundwater quality assessment for irrigation: case study in the Blinaja river basin, Kosovo. Civil Engineering Journal 7(9): 1515-1528 (2021).
21. W.Z. Babiso, K.K. Ayano, A.T. Haile, K. Acharaya, D.D. Werner, and D.D. Keche. Citizen science for water quality monitoring in the Meki River, Ethiopia: quality assurance and comparison with conventional methods. Water 15(2): 238 (2023).
22. M.F. Mustafa, A. Afreen, Y. Abbas, W. Athar, Z.U. Rahman, Q. Khan, S.W. Rehaman, and A. Ali. A study on physico-chemical and biological analysis of drinking water quality from the residential areas of Islamabad, Pakistan. Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences 8(4): 109-125 (2016).
23. A. Khan, S.A. Raza, A.Fatima, and S.W.H. Zaidi.Assessment of groundwater quality in coastal region: a case study of Qayyumabad, Karachi, Pakistan. Asian Review of Environmental and Earth Sciences 7(1): 9-17 (2020).
24. J. Ghani, Z. Ullah, J. Nawab, J. Iqbal, M. Waqas, A. Ali, M.H. Almutairi, I. Peluso, H.R. Mohamed, and M. Shah. Hydrogeochemical characterization and suitability assessment of drinking groundwater: application of geostatistical approach and geographic information system. Frontiers in Environmental Science 10: 874464) (2022).
25. N. Khatri and S. Tyagi. Influences of natural and anthropogenic factors on surface and groundwater quality in rural and urban areas. Frontiers in Life Science 8(1): 23-39 (2015).
26. M. Mohit and S. Suprita. A review on correlation between the total dissolved salts (TDS) and electrical conductivity (EC) of water samples collected from different area of Bhiwani city, Haryana, India. International Journal of Health Sciences 6(S6): 5431-5438 (2022).
27. L. Yulian, L. Jie, J. Ying, J. Xuan, and X. Yuxi. . Analysis of research hotspots and trends in groundwater nitrate contamination. Hydrogeology & Engineering Geology 51(5): 221-230 (2024).
28. S. Wen, M. Wen, S. Liang, G. Pang, J. Fan, M. Dong, Y. Wang, J. Zhang, and Y. Ye. Spatial distribution and mechanisms of groundwater hardness in in the plain area: a case study from Tangshan City, North China. Water 16(24): 3627 (2024).
29. S.K. Panjwani, M.Y. Khuhawar, G. Murtaza, V.Kumar, Z. Ur, R. Bughio, P. Devi, I.D. Sewani, and S. Kumar. Water quality assessment of groundwater resources in rural areas of Karachi, Pakistan. International Journal of Advances in Applied Sciences 13(4): 1065-1074 (2024).
30. O. Traoré, D.S. Kpoda, R. Dembélé, C.K.S. Saba, J. Cairns, N. Barro, and K. Haukka. Microbiological and physicochemical quality of groundwater and risk factors for its pollution in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. Water 15(21): 3734 (2023).
31. E.M. Bekoe, D. Hayford, G. Quarcoo, and D.D. Yar. Groundwater microbial quality and risk evaluation in a rapidly transforming urbanised area of Northern Ghana. BMC Environmental Science 2(1): 9 (2025).
32. A. Zehra, S. Kaur, J.P.S. Gill, and R. Singh. Integrated assessment of groundwater contamination: a multi‑marker approach for comprehensive water quality monitoring. Water Supply 24(5): 1447-1461 (2024).
33. M.Rajan, D. Karunanidhi, J. Jaya, B. Preethi, T. Subaramani, and P. Aravinthasamy.. A comprehensive review on human health hazards due to groundwater contamination: a global perspective. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 135: 103637 (2024).
34. Pak-EPA. National Standards for Drinking Water Quality. Report No. Pak-EPA/Env.S/2008. Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (Ministry of Environment), Government of Pakistan, Islamabad, Pakistan (2008). https://mocc.gov.pk/SiteImage/Misc/files/Drinking%20Water%20Quality%20Standares%20MAY%202007.pdf
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Upon acceptance of an article, its copyright will be assigned to the Pakistan Academy of Sciences.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY). Allows users to: copy the article and distribute; abstracts, create extracts, and other revised versions, adaptations or derivative works of or from an article (such as a translation); include in a collective work (such as an anthology); and text or data mine the article. These uses are permitted even for commercial purposes, provided the user: includes a link to the license; indicates if changes were made; gives appropriate credit to the author(s) (with a link to the formal publication through the relevant DOI); and does not represent the author(s) as endorsing the adaptation of the article or modify the article in such a way as to damage the authors' honor or reputation.
