The Antimicrobial Resistance: An Emerging Concern for Humans
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.53560/PPASB(60-4)855Keywords:
Antimicrobial Resistance, One Health Approach, Pathogens, Phage Therapy, Public Health, VaccinesAbstract
Most of the pathogens have developed the ability to combat advanced antimicrobial agents, which has caused bacterial infections to become complicated to treat. It may occur when microorganisms such as fungi, parasites, and bacteria change their behavior against conventional antimicrobial agents. Some bacteria are intrinsically resistant to some of the antimicrobial agents; if not, they may become resistant by de novo mutations or by acquiring some resistant genes. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has become a global issue because it may spread worldwide through trade, travel, migration, and healthcare facilities. AMR has been associated with adverse consequences in the context of invasive infections, including escalated hospital costs, heightened mortality rates, and prolonged hospital stays. In the case of disturbing normal flora of the intestine, serious and incurable health problems and sometimes death also occur. To combat this rising havoc, many emerging approaches are being considered to combat AMR. Some of these include one health approach, phage therapy, nanoparticles, medicinal plants and metals. This review article discusses the leading causes of AMR and its economic impact and employs emerging approaches as an effective way to treat AMR.
References
R. Kumar, G. Ghoshal, A. Jain, and M. Goyal. Rapid green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using (Prunus persica) plants extract: exploring its antimicrobial and catalytic activities. Journal of Nanomedicine and Nanotechnology 8(4): 1-8 (2017).
F.C. Tenover. Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Resistance in Bacteria. The American Journal of Medicine 119(6): S3–S10 (2006).
S. Pei, S. Blumberg, J.C. Vega, T. Robin, Y. Zhang, R.J. Medford, and J. Shaman. Challenges in Forecasting Antimicrobial Resistance. Emerging Infectious Diseases 29(4): 679 (2023).
World Health Organization. Antimicrobial Resistance (2021). Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/antimicrobial-resistance (Accessed on March 2023).
B. Aslam, W. Wang, M.I. Arshad, M. Khurshid, S. Muzammil, M.H. Rasool, A.M. Nisar, R.F. Alvi, M.A. Aslam, M.U. Qamar, M.K.F. Salamat, and Z. Baloch. Antibiotic resistance: a rundown of a global crisis. Infection and Drug Resistance 11: 1645–1658 (2018).
U.S.P. Antimicrobial resistance (2019). (https://www.usp.org/antimicrobial-resistance) (Accessed on March 2023).
K.W.K. Tang, B.C. Millar, and J.E. Moore. Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR). British Journal of Biomedical Science 80: 11387 (2023).
M.K. Chattopadhyay, R. Chakraborty, H.P. Grossart, G.S. Reddy, and M.V. Jagannadham. Antibiotic Resistance of Bacteria. BioMed Research International 1–2 (2015).
Q.A. Detail (2020). (https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/antimicrobial-resistance-does-stopping-a-course-of-antibiotics-early-lead-to-antibiotic-resistance). (Accessed on April 2023).
J. McIntosh. Antibiotic resistance: What you need to know. Medical News Today (2018). (https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/283963). (Accessed on April 2023).
C.L. Ventola. The antibiotic resistance crisis: part 1: causes and threats. P & T: A Peer-reviewed Journal for Formulary Management 40(4): 277–283 (2015).
Causes of antimicrobial resistance. NIH: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (2011). (https://www.niaid.nih.gov/research/antimicrobial-resistance-causes). (Accessed on March 2023).
J.A. Ayukekbong, M. Ntemgwa, and A.N.A Tabe. The threat of antimicrobial resistance in developing countries causes and control strategies. Antimicrobial Resistance and Infection Control 6: 47 (2017).
M.A. Salam, M.Y. Al-Amin, M.T. Salam, J.S. Pawar, N. Akhter, A.A. Rabaan, and M.A. Alqumber. Antimicrobial Resistance: A Growing Serious Threat for Global Public Health. Healthcare 11(13): 1946 (2023).
R. Finley, P. Collignon, D. Larsson, S. McEwen, X. Li, W. Gaze, R. Reid-Smith, M. Timinouni, D. Graham, and E. Topp. The Scourge of Antibiotic Resistance: The Important Role of the Environment. Clinical Infectious Diseases 57(5): 704-710 (2013).
M.J. Schwaber, and Y. Carmeli. Antimicrobial resistance and patient outcomes: The hazards of adjustment. Critical Care 10(5): 164 (2006).
M.L. Lambert, C. Suetens, A. Savey, M. Palomar, M. Hiesmayr, I. Morales, A. Agodi, U. Frank, K. Mertens, M. Schumacher, and M. Wolkewitz. Clinical outcomes of health-care-associated infections and antimicrobial resistance in patients admitted to European intensive-care units: A cohort study. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 11(1): 30–38 (2011).
G. Eliopoulos, S. Cosgrove, and Y. Carmeli. The Impact of Antimicrobial Resistance on Health and Economic Outcomes. Clinical Infectious Diseases 36(11): 1433-1437 (2003).
W. Europe, E. Policies, M. Anderson, C. Clift, K. Schulze, and A. Sagan. Averting the AMR crisis: what are the avenues for policy action for countries in Europe? (2021). (https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/331973) (Accessed on April 2023).
R. Laxminarayan, A. Duse, C. Wattal, A. Zaidi, H. Wertheim, and N. Sumpradit. Antibiotic resistance-the need for global solutions. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 13(12): 1057-1098 (2013).
Understand why should I care? Economic losses. (https://www.reactgroup.org/toolbox/understand/why-should-i-care/economic-losses/) (Accessed on February 2023).
M.E. Velazquez-Meza, M. Galarde-López, B. Carrillo-Quiróz, and C.M. Alpuche-Aranda. Antimicrobial resistance: one health approach. Veterinary World 15(3): 743 (2022).
S. George, F.F. Muhaj, C.D. Nguyen, and S.K. Tyring. Part I Antimicrobial resistance: Bacterial pathogens of dermatologic significance and implications of rising resistance. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 86(6): 1189-1204 (2022).
A.M. Allahverdiyev, K.V. Kon, E.S. Abamor, M. Bagirova, and M. Rafailovich. Coping with antibiotic resistance: combining nanoparticles with antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents. Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy 9(11): 1035-1052 (2011).
S. Alghamdi. The role of vaccines in combating antimicrobial resistance (AMR) bacteria. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences 28(12): 7505-7510 (2021).
J. Murugaiyan, P.A. Kumar, G.S. Rao, K. Iskandar, S. Hawser, J.P. Hays, and M.B. van Dongen. Progress in alternative strategies to combat antimicrobial resistance: Focus on antibiotics. Antibiotics 11(2): 200 (2022).
A. Frei, A.D. Verderosa, A.G. Elliott, J. Zuegg, and M.A. Blaskovich. Metals to combat antimicrobial resistance. Nature Reviews Chemistry 7(3): 202-224 (2023).
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2023 Upon acceptance of an article, its copyright will be assigned to the Pakistan Academy of Sciences.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY). Allows users to: copy the article and distribute; abstracts, create extracts, and other revised versions, adaptations or derivative works of or from an article (such as a translation); include in a collective work (such as an anthology); and text or data mine the article. These uses are permitted even for commercial purposes, provided the user: includes a link to the license; indicates if changes were made; gives appropriate credit to the author(s) (with a link to the formal publication through the relevant DOI); and does not represent the author(s) as endorsing the adaptation of the article or modify the article in such a way as to damage the authors' honor or reputation.
